Movie Lover

Disney Copies old films for rerelease

2009-04-29T10:19:00.000-07:00

I found this video on YouTube and found it very interesting:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HOIrXGd51jE

Its called "Disney Templates Fail"

Whoever made this video is very observant. I recommend you check it out.

Wolverine Work Print

2009-04-29T10:08:00.000-07:00

Despite all the talk that the work print being leaked online will harm the film in the box office, it has actually peaked my interest to actually watch the film in theaters. I was not a fan of any of the X Men films, I thought they were all quite terrible, but after watching the work print online I want to see how much has actually changed from that version to the theatrical release. I would think if they were smart, knowing how many people have already seen the film would entice them to change as much as possible in the time they have left. Not that it would have been needed, because I thought the film was great.

Being a film nerd I really enjoyed seeing my first work print, and watching for all the visible ropes and incomplete special effects. The missing elements were not even that distracting, which I feel proves that the trend with films today to insert as many explosions and special effects as possible is completely unnecessary. This was the first X Men film I could actually sit through from beginning to end.

This event might also hint to a change in the future of film. I know I watch a great deal of my films online these days, and the amount of downloads this film has received in a short period of time shows that films might benefit from online releases coinciding with theatrical releases. I know if I enjoy a film on my small computer screen, I would go to see in theaters. But going to the movies is so expensive these days I don't often waste my money unless I am sure I will enjoy the experience. And lets face it, there haven't been a significant amount of GREAT movies released in the last few years.... I can probably count them on one hand.

Media Audit: Disney

2009-04-29T09:51:00.000-07:00

"I only hope that we don't lose sight of one thing - that it was all started by a mouse" (Jackson, 1993). This quote brings to light just how far The Walt Disney Company has come since 1923. From producing animated shorts, to becoming one of the largest media corporations in the world, Disney exemplifies what innovation and diversification can accomplish in todays capitalist markets. Mickey Mouse paved the way for the growth of a corporate giant. This paper will examine the theoretical framework of auditing mediascapes perspective, and the specific implementation of an institutional audit to the case study of Disney to examine media concentration and implications of the market model.

The theoretical framework for this analysis, auditing mediascapes perspective, is adapted from the political economy of communication. In The Political Economy of Communication Mosco defines this concept as “examining social relations, particularly the power relations, that mutually constitute the production, distribution, and consumption of resources,” and a more general interest in the “processes of control and survival in social life” (Mosco, 1996). Political economy originated in the eighteenth century “partly to explain, justify and support the acceleration of capitalism. It rejected as inefficient and unproductive policies that required strong state support” (Mosco, 1996). Political economy of communication conducts historical analysis in order to study communication transformations, social totality, moral philosophy and social praxis. These four characteristics broaden the meaning of political economy to implement it through various approaches in studying communication (Mosco, 1996).

The core premise of communications transformations is that changes in conditions of human existence are intertwined with the evolution of capitalism, the dominant political rationality of our time. This includes changes within the national and global mediascapes, such as the implementation of television sets and satellite communication and how they both related to and affected social life. Social totality is the study of the social world in its entirety. Today academics is separated into compartments; those interested in social class study sociology, those interested in government study political science. What social totality calls for is a pre-disciplinary intellectual tradition which combines disciplines and breaks down borders between them in order to capture the various aspects of communication transformations. Social totality can include studies of audience, content, techniques, infrastructure, industries, policy and laws, media practices and communication education. Moral philosophy are the general guidelines of how we should act in a nation state, it is a worldview that privileges protection of democratic values. Political philosophy narrows this focus to more specific questions about how we relate to one another within political society. Finally, social praxis opens possibilities for applying academic studies of media democratization into organized structures for more humane, democratic and egalitarian mediascapes (Mosco, 1996; Ngare, 2008).

The two strategies of auditing mediascape perspective are: to hold liberal democratic governments accountable, and to invoke a participatory tenet of communicative democratic theory. A quote from Mouffe’s Democratic Politics Today brings light to the first strategy, “Indeed, once we acknowledge that what constitutes modern democracy is the assertion that all human beings are free and equal, it becomes clear that it is not possible to find more radical principles for organizing society” (Mouffe, 1992). The very premises on which liberal democratic governments function are problematic. While they value equality, they also value state neutrality, but in order for people to be “equal” in all respects some form of government redistribution would be needed. Government redistribution would then infringe on the value of individual freedom, as people should be entitled to keep the money they own. This illustrates why Mouffe finds these principles “radical” in terms of organizing society. If government is structured on these values than they should cultivate equality through institutions such as education and employment and they should ensure citizens freedom of speech and other such liberties. One example of this will be discussed with Disney and the Copyright Extension Act of 1998.

The second strategy, involves invoking participatory communicative democratic theory. A basic function of citizenship is participation. Citizens need access to information to remain informed and vote accordingly, and have the right to freedom of speech and equality to voice their concerns Liberal democratic theory legitimates society’s deliberation venues, such as courts and public hearings, while communicative democratic theory suggests alternative venues of deliberation. McChesney suggests that in our media centric society, we need a democratic press, controlled by the public, in the public interest. Media contributes to unequal class relations, the view of the upper class are represented and reinforced to a greater extent than the lower class. With media concentration, fewer voices are being heard and popular taste is becoming uniform. As McChesney states, “If your not at the table, your not part of the deal” (McChesney, 2007). A truly democratic communication system requires an outlet for the public to influence views expressed in culture so as not to be confined to the views of a handful of powerful corporations.

These strategies can be used to determine if their is a democratic deficit, a notion that many scholars suggest is the reality of current democratic societies. Democratic deficits occur when citizens do not get the information they need to make informed decisions, as well as not getting the opportunity to engage in discussions about issues (Aucoin, 2003). Hackett and Carroll discuss this situation in great detail in Beyond the Media’s Democratic Deficit? They write that media have failed to actualize democratic values such as, participation, equality, representative diversity, and civic engagement. In addition, they are becoming in themselves threats to democracy. “Media are not only failing to furnish citizens with ready access to relevant civic information . . . they are failing to help constitute a democratic public sphere” (Hackett & Carroll, 2006).

We can examine these aspects of modern society and communication by analyzing institutions through the phenomenon of spatialization to determine how such concentration, leading to power and influence in society, has emerged on a case by case basis. This essay uses Disney as the institution and tracks aspects of spatialization from the companies conception to modern day, but first a basic understanding of institutional audit is necessary for such an analysis.

The Institutional Audit has two research objectives. The first is “To account for media concentration in terms of horizontal and vertical integration” (Ngare, 2008), derived from Vincent Mosco’s concept of spatialization as discussed in his book The Political Economy of Communication: Rethinking the Renewal. Spatialization was introduced by Henri Lefebvre (1979) “to denote the process of overcoming the constraints of space and time in social life.” Marx commented on the tendency of capitalism to “annihilate space with time.” This refers to the growing power of capital to improve the means of transportation and communication across the globe. This notion was later taken up by political economists such as Harold Innis (1972). Modern political economists have amended the Marxian view, and rather than annihilating space, they say capital transforms it (Mosco, 1996).

Political economy of communication uses spatialization to observe growth and concentration of corporations within the communication industry. Concentration can be examined vertically and horizontally. Vertical concentration involves one media firm purchasing another within the three stages of media business: production, distribution, and exhibition. This can occur in either direction, forward integration would involve moving further up the business process, while backward integration would expand the firm downward in the business process. Larry Collette discusses the concentration processes of Disney and Time Warner, which are among the top six media corporations in the world. He says, “Disney’s expansion occurred as “content in search of outlet,” while Time Warner was “outlets in search of content.” (Collette, 1998). Meaning that while Disney created original material they could benefit from forward integration by purchasing distribution and exhibition channels for their products. Time Warner, on the other hand, could benefit from backward integration as they had exhibition channels and no production.

Horizontal concentration occurs when one media firm buys another media firm not directly related their operations, known as cross-media ownership; or when a media firm buys a firm outside of the media industry, known as conglomeration. Within horizontal concentration is the notion of synergy, the promotion of media products in different platforms in order to generate maximum profits (Ngare, 2008). These platforms are also known as windows. Windows involve the marketing of a film or television show before, during and after its release. They are organized around different forms of exhibition and distribution, and each window would have a different release date. For example, when Disney release a film such as Finding Nemo, They may first release ancillary products as they advertise the films, these would include general merchandise like toys and clothing; then release the film in theaters; followed by a video game; a soundtrack; pay-for-view release; DVD release; and can then reuse the content on The Disney Channel, they may also create a ride in one of their amusement parks. The more holdings a company possesses the more potential windows they have for making profits adapted from a single product. Each window results in lower and lower investments, when a content reaches the company’s own television channel, there is very little cost associated with broadcasting it (Collette, 1998).

The second objective of the Institutional Audit is, “To asses implications of the market model in national and global mediascapes,” as discussed by McChesney in The Market Uber Alles (Ngare, 2008). The assumption that the competitive market is the best possible system for regulation keeps citizens from opposing media’s current structure. The notion being, it is the best possible system to give people what they want, and if they don’t like the product they won’t purchase it. Under these assumptions government should not regulate the media because any attempt to do so will interfere with the ability of market regulation.

McChesney points to the flaws in this view. If the market it is not economically competitive market regulation will not occur, as it will not be responsive to the audience preference. He describes the media market as being an monopolistic/oligopolistic market rather than a competitive one. Firms have become concentrated through vertical and horizontal integration. These company’s have so many holdings, new and small companies cannot compete. With less competition comes less diversification of media content, thus democratic notions of a free press become compromised (McChesney, 2004).

McChesney also discusses Janet Wasko’s assessment of Hollywood as a “three tier society.” The first-tier encompasses large media corporations such as; Time Warner, Viacom, News Corporation, Sony, General Electric and Disney. The second-tier are firms that dominate one or two media sectors. Third-tier media firms make up the thousands of small-scale media firms which first and second-tier firms will purchase if profitable (Ngare, 2008). An example of a second-tier firm is Pixar Animation. They were at the forefront of computer animation, but to compete in the monopolistic market they partnered with Disney to take advantage of their various media platforms and brand name. “In short, it has to give Disney a piece of the action to ensure its economic survival in the conglomerate jungle” (McChesney, 2004).

Janet Wasko discusses Disney in relation to political economy of communication in her book Understanding Disney. She says to fully understand Disney as a cultural phenomenon we must understand the corporation, how it is manufactured and marketed. She writes that economic factors set limits and exert pressures on the commodities that are produced. Disney is a business that must get citizens to consume its products to produce profit for its shareholders.

Walt Disney first created the animation company Laugh-O-Gram with fellow animator, Urb Iwerks on May 22, 1922. Within a year this company went bankrupt and Walt moved to Hollywood. With funds from his brother Roy, he founded Walt Disney studios on October 16, 1923. Disney released the first feature length animation in 1937, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. With the success of this animation Walt Disney moved his operations to a much larger facility, a $3 million dollar studio, with 20 separate buildings for different stages of the animation process. The result of this new studio was an assembly line process of animation production, a more industrial process of manufacturing (Jackson, 1993).

In addition to releasing the first feature length animation, Disney was at the forefront of technological advancements in animation, advancements that would eventually be adopted as norm. Steamboat Willie (1928) was the first animation to implement synchronized sound. Disney studios created the process of a story boarding, Disney developed the first use of technicolor animation, as well as a multi-plane camera which gave the animations greater depth and more realism, a feature Disney strived for. Janet Wasko writes in Understanding Disney that he had an “unerring appreciation of technical developments and how to use them for profit” (Wasko, 2001). These various developments helped shape the entire animation industry and set the standards for other companies to follow.

In the 1940s some of Disney’s employees were beginning to resent the company and Walt Disney. Regardless of who produced an idea or animation “Walt Disney” was the only name to appear in the credits. Animators wanted more credit and compensation for the work they produced. This issue is still debated today in relation to intellectual property rights, as the hard work of employees tends to benefit the company more than the individual (Wasko, 2001).

By the 1950s television had become a popular medium, with 90% of American homes having a television set by 1960. Disney began making Christmas specials, such as One hour in Wonderland broadcast in 1950 on NBC. In October 1954, Disney began airing its first television show Disneyland on ABC. Disney was the first studio executive to make a deal with a television network to produce an original series. The show provided Disney with a vehicle for cross promotion of his various other projects, such as feature films. In addition, they could recycle old material from films to provide content for the television show (Collette, 1998). Wasko writes that Disney recognized the potential value in promoting and diversifying the film business. Disneyland theme park opened in Anaheim, California in 1955, with ABC as 35% owner. The Disney company did not fully support Walt’s idea for a theme park, so he created a separate company which he called Walt Disney Inc. (later to become WED Enterprises), to run the park while not putting company funds in jeopardy. The television show provided a vehicle to promote the park to a large audience.

While Disney was at the forefront of producing animation, they wanted to move into the realm of distribution as well. They created Buena Vista Distribution as a vehicle for distributing their own material. This exemplifies forward integration, and vertical concentration. Disney also developed a process of rereleasing popular feature films every few years, which produced greater profits with little investment. This still occurs today with digitally remastered films, box-sets, and collectors addition DVDs.

Walt Disney died on December 15, 1965. His brother Roy ran the company for the next six years opening Walt Disney World in Florida in 1971, but he passed away later that year. At this time former vice-president Donn Tatum became chairman and Card Walker, who was in marketing, became president. During this period Disney had ceased to be the innovative company it was during Walt’s lifetime. Expansion and diversification had slowed, and new technologies had not been produced in the studio for some time. Other film companies had begun to diversify and enter various other media outlets. In 1983 Disney again began diversifying. They launched the Disney Channel for children, and later that year they created Touchstone Pictures an adult-orientated film label. Most analysts claimed this slowing of Disney’s diversification was an attempt for them to sit on their existing assets. Under this management, in 1983, Disney was almost victim to a takeover. Management was quickly changed and the company restructured (Wasko, 2001).

This has been the history of Disney as an innovative company, in terms of the technologies they produced, their business structure, and diversification efforts. Today Disney has become among the top six media conglomerates in the world, with annual revenues over $27 billion. Disney has a wide range of companies that span the globe. Disney has various “teaming arrangements,” which are interactions between firms that do not involve a merger (Mosco, 1996). Disney has joint ventures with McDonalds, which provides children with toys of upcoming Disney characters in their Happy Meals; as well as an official airline, Delta; official car rental company, National Car Rental; and the Bank of America, whom Disney has been working with since 1930, is the official bank of Disney.

In 1995, Disney shocked the world when it purchased Capital Cities/ ABC. Again implementing forward integration, this time towards exhibition. It was a $19 billion dollar takeover, which temporarily placed Disney as the largest media company in the world. The move greatly enhanced Disney’s position, restoring it to some of the glory it experienced in the early years. Prior to this merger Disney was having trouble getting its programs on television at desirable times. The purchase of ABC enabled Disney to reach larger primetime audiences (McPhail, 2001).

The move to the new studio in the 1930s had resulted in a great deal of debt for the Disney company. In 1938 Disney became a publicly traded company. Until this point it had been privately owned. They issued 155,000 shares of preferred stock and 600,000 shares of common stock. providing much needed funds, but changing ownership control. Dominant Disney shareholders as of 2000 were the Bass Brothers, now known as Keystone Inc. As of 1985 they owned 25% of Disney stock. While not sitting on the board of directors, their influence on Disney cannot be ignored. They encourage the Capital Cities/ ABC takeover. Warren Buffet who had major investments in ABC became an influential shareholder at this time. He is largest shareholder and CEO of Berkshire Hathaway Inc. Roy Disney Jr. remained the third largest shareholder in the company, as well as being Vice Chairman. A new edition to this influential group of shareholders is Steve Jobs of Apple as a result of the Pixar- Disney partnership. In addition, Disney holds shares in various other media outlets. They own 38% of A&E Television Networks, 38% of The History Channel, 50% of Lifetime, and 34% of E! Entertainment (Wasko, 2001; McPhail, 2006). These relationships can demonstrate networks of class power, which includes overlapping dictatorship of corporate boards. All of the current members of the board of directors are also involved in other major companies. Through the board of directors Disney is directly linked to Nike, Apple, Starbucks, FedEx, KFC, Pizza Hut, A&W, Taco Bell, and Procter & Gamble (The Walt Disney Company).

Disney purchased the New Amsterdam Theatre in 1994 to produce theatre productions of their animations, such as Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King. These performances have also been presented at the Disney theme parks. Disney also has various music businesses, Buena Vista Music Group, Hollywood Records, Mammoth Records, and Lyric Street Records. Disney has been involved in licensing its characters for merchandise since the 1930s with Mickey Mouse and supporting characters. By 1934 Mickey Mouse was the most popular licensed character in the world, earning Disney $600,000 a year. Other film companies did not begin to realize the potential of merchandising until the 1970s. Disney’s merchandising efforts reached revenues of $14 billion worldwide in 1994, involving 3000 companies and over 14,000 Disney products. Disney also operates a large number of official Disney retail stores worldwide, as well as a large number of publications. In 1988, they published over 120 different magazines and comics, in 16 countries (Wasko, 2001; Jackson 1993).

Disney, in addition to California and Florida locations, also operates theme parks in Tokyo, Paris and Hong Kong. They run the Disney Cruise Line, Disney Vacation Club, and Adventures by Disney along with a large number of resorts. They also have sport affiliations. They control ESPN, the sports channel which was founded in 1979 and is owned 80% by ABC. After their successful film The Mighty Ducks, Disney purchased the rights to their own hockey team, which became known as the Anaheim Might Ducks, in an innovative cross-promotional effort (McPhail, 2006).

In relation to globalization, Disney characters such as Mickey Mouse, may be among the most recognizable characters worldwide. In addition to Buena Vista Distribution, Disney’s original distribution company, they now operate Buena Vista International, ranked the world’s top international distributor of the 1990s. Touchstone and Miramax, two other film labels within Disney, also distribute films internationally. In addition to international release of films, Disney merchandise also operates cross-boarders. One controversial merchandise deal was the Royal Canadian Mounted Police when they signed an agreement with Disney to license Mountie merchandise worldwide. Critics in Canada are often wary of our proximity to the U.S. and what they consider cultural invasion of U.S. corporations. In addition, the Disney theme parks outside of the U.S. have been met with controversy, especially the Paris location, where protestors egged Disney executives when they announced plans for the park in 1992. In addition, Disney operates numerous multinational corporations to exploit international opportunities such as cheaper labour and operational costs (Wasko, 2001).

Disney was influential in the Copyright Extension Act of 1998. Intellectual property had been an issue for Disney since the 1930s among some of its animators. Disney lobbied Congress directly and the bill was passed, extending copyright properties from 75 years to 95. This had important implications for Disney as, under the original law, Mickey Mouse was going to become public property in 2003. This is an example of state-media relations and demonstrates the weight of corporations to influence policy. While public property can have beneficial outcomes for the society as a whole, corporations exercise their power to maintain ownership of their products to further increase and maintain their billion dollar revenues.

Criticisms of Disney arise from its influence on other cultures, its power structures, monopolization of the market, representation of minority groups within the media, and exploitation of lower cost labour. These are criticisms that are associated with virtually all modern corporations. The media industry is now controlled by a small group of very large and diversified corporations. Due to the diversification of these companies into such a variety of different fields, their dominance of the market and culture is not likely to change in the near future without some form of societal change to remedy our current problems. The history of Disney provided within this essay, has demonstrated just a fraction of how large these corporations are and how far their influences extend. McPhail writes, “US multimedia empires, along with their extensive advertising networks, project and encourage US tastes, values, morals, history, culture and language around the world” (McPhail, 2006).

The extent to which concentration continues to occur is adding both to the monopolization of the market, as well contributing to the democratic deficit. As was demonstrated within this paper, Disney’s various innovations to animation and business structure were eventually adopted by their competitors. In addition, ownership within the market has become concentrated. Today content across firms has become very similar, there is less differential between the various film companies techniques and opinions.

This essay has attempted to provide a basic outline of auditing media perspective and the institutional audit. It has demonstrated various examples of vertical and horizontal concentration throughout the history of The Walt Disney Company, as well as drawing on observations of dominant shareholders, teaming arrangements, networks of class power, internationalization and state-media relations. Disney has been an innovative company both in its business processes and influence on popular culture. It helped to shape the structure of modern media corporations and Mickey Mouse is perhaps the most recognizable media character across the globe. For better or worse Disney has grown into one of the most influential media corporations on the planet, and “it all started with a mouse.”

References

Aucoin, Peter and Lori Turnbull (2003). “The Democratic Deficit: Paul Martin and Parliamentary Reform.” Canadian Public Administration. 46(4): 427-449.

Collette, Larry (1998). “The wages of synergy: Integration into broadcast by Warner Brothers, Disney and Paramount.” Ed. B. R. Litman, The motion picture mega-industry. 122-143.

Hackett, R. & Carroll, W. (2006). “Beyond the Media’s Democratic Deficit.” In Remaking Media: The struggle to democratize public communication. New York: Routledge.

Jackson, K.L. (1993). “Walt Disney: A Bio-Bibliography.” London: Greenwood Press.

McChesney, Robert (2007). “The Rise and Fall of the Political Economy of Communication.” In Communication Revolution: Critical Junctures and the Future of Media. New York: New Press. 37-98.

McChesney, Robert (2004). “The Market of Uber Alles.” In The Problem of the Media: U.S. Communication Politics in the 21st Century. New York: Monthly Review. 175-191.

McPhail, T. (2006). “American Multimedia Giants.” Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders and Trends. (2nd ed.). MA: Blackwell.

Mosco, V. (1996). “The Political Economy of Communication: Rethinking and Renewal.” Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mouffe, C. (1992). “Dimensions of Radical Democracy: Pluralism, Citizenship, Community.” New York: Vesso.

Ngare, Joseph (2008) Institutional Audit Lecture. Carleton University.

The Walt Disney Company (2008). Accessed November 29, 2008. http://corporate.disney.go.com/corporate/overview.html

Case Studies of Media Concentration and Social Responsibility Theory

2009-04-29T09:44:00.000-07:00

Thesis Statement and Research Problematic

The Social Responsibility Theory suggestes that in the U.S. anyone with something to say has a right to use the media, and that the media should serve as a watchdog over government, as well as remaining free from pressures of special interests. However, many theorists have argued that there is considerable deviance between the rationale and actual practice. Due to influences of concentration of media ownership and economic agendas, the media are no longer functioning according to the Social Responsibility Theory, in fact, a majority of the criteria outlined by this theory are now being taken up by the citizens outside of the press. This essay will explore how citizens use methods of collaborative documentary and blogs to fulfill the responsibilities suggested by the Social Responsibility Theory in the absence of the press fulfilling their social responsibilities.

Theoretical Background and Literature Review

Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm are authors of the book Four Theories of the Press; they outline six tasks ascribed to the press under the Social Responsibility Theory; (1) serving the political system by providing information, discussion and debate on public affairs; (2) enlightening the public so as to make it capable of self-government; (3) serving as watchdog against the government; (4) servicing the economic system through the medium of advertising; (5) providing entertainment; and (6) maintaining its own financial self-sufficiency so as to remain free from pressure of special interests (Siebert, Peterson, Schramm, 1963).

In Four Theories of the Press, Peterson writes, “To the extent that the press recognizes its responsibilities and makes them the basis of operational policies, [it] will satisfy the needs of society. To the extent that the press does not assume its responsibilities, some other agency must see that the essential functions of mass communications are carried out” (Siebert et al.). This paper will suggest that several of these responsibilities are not being carried out by the press, and although not being taken up by any particular agency as the previous quote describes, these responsibilities are being carried out by individuals and groups of citizens through the use of blogs and collaborative documentaries. Following World War II various books published by the Commission on Freedom of the Press, placed great importance on the social responsibility of the press and the idea of “a free and responsible press;” during the twentieth century within the United States this notion developed that the press had a social responsibility, and because if this it became the only industry protected by the Bill of Rights (Siebert et al.).

J. Herbert Altschull argued against the categories outlined in Four Theories of the Press, he maintains that the four theories are no longer relevant and an independent press cannot exist because the media are agents of those who hold the economic, political and social power within the system (Severin, 2000). Because the media are so closely tied to those in power, they function more to maintain the status quo and represent the upper class than to serve in the interest of the public or to question the system. Lazarsfeld and Merton similarly point out that because media are supported by corporate businesses within the economic system, the media in turn supports that system. They state that the media “fail to raise essential questions about the structure of society,” and that a commercially sponsored media provide little basis for the critical appraisal of society (Lazarsfeld and Merton, 2000).

John C. Nerone wrote in Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press, “The press driven by capital cannot be expected to provide a thorough critique of the economic system or to offer alternatives because it is not free from control or domination by capital. Naturally, from its very beginning, the capital-driven press did not have as its aim to be a watchdog over the system of which it is a part. Watchdogs do not bite their owners” (Nerone, 1995). Nerone also writes of how the press’ social responsibility under this theory also includes providing citizens with the raw materials they need to govern themselves and have a proper democratic society, but he says that by placing this responsibility on the press the theory is actually helping to reinforce the status quo, as ‘monopoly media seem like the voice of the people, even as they keep the people silent and stupid (Nerone, 1995).

Methodology

Of the six criteria outlined by Social Responsibility Theory, only two are still unarguably being carried out, that is media as entertainment and media as servicing the economic system through the medium of advertising. The other criteria, which are more “socially responsible” are lacking in many cases of mainstream media. The functions of serving the political system by providing information, discussion and debate on public affairs; and enlightening the public so as to make it capable of self-government are lacking because news papers and broadcast news often have a political leaning to left or right, and in some cases represent one side more favorably than the other. This is an issue Fox News has had considerable attention drawn to from outside of the press by individuals working together to show the public they can not receive their information from just this source, as this will leave them lacking in all the information necessary to be capable of self-governing (Outfoxed, 2004). As has been discussed by theorists opposing Four Theories of the Press the media are no longer serving as watchdog against the government as they are now a part of that system and often represent similar views. The last function, maintaining its own financial self-sufficiency so as to remain free from pressure of special interests is not occurring in many instances because the press in fact do have special interests, being owned by much larger corporations a medium is unlikely to report stories that have a negative impact on the corporation or its sponsors. As Altschull has concluded, “the content of news media always reflects the interests of those who finance the press,” and “On all press systems the media are agents of the people who exercise the political and economic power” (Severin, 2000).

The corporations known as “The Big Six” own an overwhelming amount of the mass media, these companies include General Electric, TimeWarner, Walt Disney, News Corp., CBS and Viacom (Freepress, 2008). According to the organization Free Press, the media “inform our ideas, values and beliefs. They shape our understanding of the world. Media are also essential to our democracy. We depend upon the news and information we get from the media to make informed decisions and to hold our government and corporate leaders accountable” (FreePress, 2008). For democracy to properly function the public needs to be informed, and they require access to diverse sources of news so as to make their own informed decisions and opinions based on all of the facts and all sides of every story and argument.

Media concentration is placing too much power in the hands of a small group of individuals. The big six corporations are worth billions of dollars and have access to such a large group of people it is almost impossible for marginal and alternative media to compete or be heard. The mainstream media seek primarily to make profits and are not concerned with social responsibility as a main priority. Because the owners of these media are upper class citizens they have no desire to question and oppose the system of which they are a part. In order to receive the alternative views needed to be an informed citizen, individuals can rely on no one news source, and it is becoming increasingly difficult to find opposing view points in the media as fewer disseminating voices are being heard.

Citizens unsatisfied with the current media situation are finding ways to express their points of view to the public, ensuring that alternative voices are out there. Anyone with internet access has a location to express their point of view and discover alternative ways of thinking. People are also working together to produce documentaries that draw attention to failure of the media to report all sides of an issue and to express the side that would otherwise go unreported. This essay will explore case studies where citizens express alternative views through the use of internet and blogs, as well as three collaborative documentaries; This is What Democracy Looks Like (2000), Kanehsatake: 270 Years of Resistance (1993), and Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch’s War on Journalism (2004).

Case Studies

The Internet:

For democracy to function properly people must be aware of issues in society, if people feel the media are not adequately serving this function they will find means at their disposal to raise discussion about issues they feel are important. This is why lobby groups form and internet forums arise about issues of concern to the public. People will use whatever means at their disposal to raise awareness and bring about change to issues they feel are important. In the new technological world, the internet is perhaps the most available means for the public to raise awareness of problems and discuss various issues in society. Personal web pages, blogs, ezines, or discussion forums such as Facebook provide a platform for people to discuss and question the world around them. Angelo Fernando has claimed that citizen powered journalism has stepped in to fill the void of the national media (Fernando, 2008).

Citizen journalism by means of the internet has been critiqued as being untrustworthy and not real journalism, but in the contemporary situation of the press, where a handful of companies own a majority of the media and means of communication, citizen journalism is necessary for individuals to find alternative points of view. Individuals simply need to regard everything they read or view, mainstream or online, with a critical eye. The Online Journalism Review outlines some internet platforms where citizens are expressing alternative views, these include: audience participation (such as user comments attached to news stories, and personal blogs); independent news and information Websites (for example Workingforchange.com and the Drudge Report); ull-fledged participatory news sites (such as Indymedia); collaborative and contributory media sites (such as Evrerything2); and personal broadcasting sites (video broadcast sites such as KenRadio.com or YouTube in some cases). (Lasica, 2003)

Collaborative Documentaries:

Collaborative documentaries are another important method whereby people can raise discussions of important issues. In a majority of documentaries there is an outside reporter discussing an issue on behalf of a group they are not a member of, much like journalistic news reporting. Collaborative documentary is a method where a group of people can speak for themselves about an issue, providing an alternative view from mainstream media. Journalists’ use of “official” sources often leaves the group affected by a situation in the position of “the other,” unable to speak for themselves (Ruby, 2000).

A few particularly interesting examples of collaborative documentary are This is What Democracy Looks Like (2000) and Kanehsatake: 270 Years of Resistance (Alanis Obomsawin, 1993); each of these films depict an event that was highly publicized by the media, but take an opposing stance to the “official” representation of the event. Both films use footage to show how the issue was covered by the press, while also showing their side of the story by working with the people directly involved and representing the event from the opposite point of view of the press.

This is What Democracy Looks Like consists of a compilation of footage provided by protestors during the 1999 World Trade Organization Summit in Seattle. The film shows how the media portrayed the protestors as criminals and spoke highly of the police; while the film shows a great deal of footage of peaceful protestors being gassed and beaten by the police, an extreme opposition to the details provided by the media. This shows a potential problem in the media’s desire to represent news from the position of “official” sources, as this approach leaves out alternative points of view out of many events. In this case of this protest, the views of the protestors involved were not fully reported, but rather the media focused on the position of the police and only represented their side of the story. This depicts a situation where the press did not raise appropriate questions about the event as the Social Responsibility Theory would suggest to be their role. In this instance the press did not serve as a watchdog on the government, but the citizens involved took on this role by making a documentary that showed wrongful actions of the police and the media in covering the event. Obviously, if the media only rely on police statements of what was occurring in Seattle the police will defend their actions against the protestors by making the protesters seem violent.

The news footage that is shown in the documentary shows the media reaffirming the police point of view by stating that the protestors were violent and the police were “showing great restraint” in their actions towards them. But footage displayed within the documentary shows peoples right to freedom of speech being taken away from them. The police began making all of the city of Seattle a no-protest-zone, and used tear gas on people who were sitting on the ground in the form of a human-chain. This all seems like very excessive force on the protestors, and does not show “great restraint” as the news footage described.

The documentary Kanehsatake: 270 Years of Resistance depicts the conflict that occurred in Oka, Quebec during the summer of 1990 between the Mohawk people on their reserve and the provincial police and federal military. The conflict in this situation arouse when the town of Oka decided to use the land on the Native reserve to build a golf course. In opposition to this the Mohawk people barricaded the road to prevent the construction of the golf course, this eventually resulted in a stand-off between the Mohawk people and the Canadian Military for several months time. The military would not allow press into the Native reserve so a majority of the representation of the event had to rely on the military and the local police as sources, while the Mohawk’s were unable to represent their side of the story. The film was made from inside the barricade where the press were not allowed, so is shot from the point-of-view of the native people. The film shows the Mohawk people as not wanting violence, but merely to protect their land. It represents the military as being in the wrong through the use of footage that shows unnecessary violence on the native people. The entire reserve was surrounded by military and tanks, no food, clothing or family were allowed to enter. One native man was beaten by a group of soldiers to the point he had to be taken to hospital, and he was not allowed to return to reserve once he had left. While the Mohawk people were described as savages by the press and the military, the effect of the film is to show the military as the savages (Pick, 1999). In the end everyone on the reserve surrendered and were loaded onto buses to be taken to police headquarters for questioning, but the golf course was never built, and most of the people were released, making the entire event seem very pointless on the part of the police and military whom could have left months earlier.

Another collaborative documentary is Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch’s War on Journalism (Robert Greenwald, 2004). This film is slightly different than the other two examples as it is not speaking out for a marginalized group in society, it is a film critiquing the Fox News slogans of “Fair and Balanced” and “We Report, You Decide.” This film includes a great deal of stock footage of Fox News coverage as well as interview segments with former employees, activists and experts. The Outfoxed website describes the film as an “in-depth look as Fox News and the dangers of ever-enlarging corporations taking control of the publics right to know (Outfoxed, 2004). The film shows evidence that Fox News is among the least balanced and objective journalism, and how this is seeping into many of the large news corporations, hunting for facts can be time consuming and costly so news corporations are cutting costs and running simple stories whenever possible. This film also shows how mainstream media are not necessarily the best source for individuals to get their political information, as Fox for example is extremely Right Wing. The film shows a report by FAIR (Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting)conducted form June to December 2003, which concluded Fox had 5 times as many Republicans (83%) as Democrats (17%) speaking one on one during the program Special Report with Brit Hume, whereas if they were really “Fair and Balanced” these numbers would be much closer (Outfoxed, 2004).

The film includes a quote by former Fox News Anchor Jon Du Pre, “We weren't necessarily, as it was told to us, a news gathering organization so much as we were a proponent of a point-of-view” (Outfoxed, 2004). Everyday employees of Fox News receive a memo from headquarters in New York telling them what they should and should not discuss for the day. One short example of these types of memos read:

Fox Memo

Date: 4/28/2004 From: Moody

Let’s refer to the US marines we see in the foreground as “sharpshooters” not snipers, which carries a negative connotation.

This is an example of how the journalists who work for the corporation are controlled and told what to say and how to say it. The film also draws attention to the fact that when George W. Bush was elected president in 2000 it was Fox News which first announced the win. George Bush’s first cousin was the individual at Fox News responsible for the election analysis division, while most people decided that the final count, for the State of Florida was “too close to call,” Fox News went ahead and announced that it was a clear win for George W. Bush. Within minutes several major news stations started reporting Bush’s presidency, ABC, NBC, and CBS (Outfoxed, 2004).

This film is an interesting example as it not only offers alternative ideas, it offers alternative ways of thinking about the entire structure of the press, it raises questions about democracy, such as can we trust stations like Fox to give us balanced information to determine our political decisions and ideological ideas? This film goes so far as to speak out directly against a major news station, and suggests it is neither fair and balance, nor objective, but simply one point of view on selected issues.

Conclusion

Due to the failure of the media to cover the rationales as outlined in the Social Responsibility Theory, citizens in society are raising awareness and alternative views to important issues through the use of the internet and collaborative documentaries, which are only two of many methods employed by citizens to fulfill this role in society. Concentration of ownership due to the development of large media conglomerates has resulted in few opposing point of views. It is difficult for alternative voices to be heard in the mainstream over the voices of these few large corporations. The media are no longer raising debates about political issues, or serving as a watchdog over the government, they are no longer free of special interests, but instead are driven by special interests of the economic system they service. Primarily the citizens outside of the mainstream press are now fulfilling the social responsibilities which are crucial to a democratic society, only they are raising opposing views, alternative voices, causing debate on issues of importance and acting not only as watchdog over the government, but now operating as a watchdog over the press as well.

References

Fernando, Angelo (2008) Citizen-powered journalism fills void. Communication World. Vol. 25, Iss. 1, 8-9.

Free Press (2008). Free Press: Reform Media, Transform Democracy. Retrieved March 29, 2008 from http://www.freepress.net

Gaines, J.M. (1999) Political Mimesis. Collecting Visible Evidence. J.M. Gaines and M. Renov (Eds.). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 84-102.

Lasica, J.D. (2003). “What is Participatory Journalism.” Online Journalism Reiew. Retrieved March 27, 2008 from http://www.ojr.org/ojr/workplace/1060217106.php

Lazarsfeld, P.F., & Merton, R.K. (2000) Mass Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action. Media Studies: A Reader. P Marris and S. Thornham (Eds.). New York: New York University Press, 18-30.

Nerone, John C. (1995) Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Outfoxed. (2004). Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch’s War on Journalism. Retrieved March 23, 2008, from http://www.outfoxed.org

Pick, Zuzana (1999) Storytelling and Resistance: The Documentary Practice of Alanis Obomsawin. Gendering the Nation: Canadian Women’s Cinema. Kay Armatage (Ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 171-181.

Ruby, Jay (2000) Speaking for, Speaking about, Speaking alongside. Picturing Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 195- 219.

Severin, W.J., Tankard, J.W. (2000) Communication Theories: Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media. 5th Edition. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Siebert, F.S., Peterson, T. & Schramm, W. (1963) Four Theories of the Press. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Indexicality and Film

2009-04-29T09:41:00.000-07:00

Indexicality refers to the existential bond between copy and reality. It has been defined in terms of the camera producing a “footprint” of the profilmic event., whatever is placed before the camera is recorded and through a chemical process of registering light produces the resulting image. Advancing technology and the move towards a digital cinema has resulted in arguments that digital imagery is no longer indexical. Lev Manovich writes that “cinema is the art of the index; it is an attempt to make art out of a footprint.” (Manovich, 2001). This seems to be a falsified, although common, interpretation of film. Film always involves manipulation to some degree, and one argument against new technology is that it is now easier to manipulate the image. The issue of indexicality and manipulation seems blown out of proportion considering a fictional film, by its very nature, is a construct of reality, and things filmed are rarely represented exactly as they appear in the real world.What the image is meant to represent is of more importance than how it is accomplished.

Lev Manovich has outlined some of the aspects of the indexicality argument in his article “Digital Cinema and the History of a Moving Image.” He writes that with new technology it is possible to generate an image directly on a computer screen, without ever recording physical reality; digital cinema makes no distinction between what is live-action and what is animated, as everything is reduced to pixels; and digital cinema possesses a “plasticity” that was absent from earlier live-action films, as pixels are more easily manipulated than raw footage. These are concerns surrounding a fear that cinematic realism will be lost ,which has defined so much of film theory in the past. The basic concern is that cinema will lose its basic principle of simply recording the world in which we live, the live-action quality of film.

Computer-generated imagery has created concerns pertaining to established film concepts; arguments against its use rely on definitions and analysis provided by early film theorists. This seems to be an attempt to prevent change to the medium so as to hold on to established theories. Rudolf Arnheim, for example, classified cinema based on its limitations in representing reality, as well as outlining why cinema was different from other art forms such as painting and literature. Today, the arguments are being reversed, claiming the early period discussed by Arnheim was actually a more accurate representation of reality than is achieved in todays “digitized” cinema. Many arguments seem based on defending realism and old film methods, rather than accepting and embracing the changes in the technology. The fact that early film theorists rarely mentioned special effects, and classified film as something separate and different from animation represents how film was perceived in the past. Today, because these aspects were left relatively untheorized, it seems to be producing concern of how to incorporate these elements into established and accepted film theories. However, the writings on the history of cinema often describe some of films precursors as modes of animation, such as the zoetrope. In this respect film began as animation, as well, special effects have been incorporated throughout film history, A Trip to the Moon (Georges Méliès, 1902) for example used both animation and special effects in its production in 1902. It was a decision on the part of many theorists to leave these aspects out of their writing as it often does not fit with their theories about film, or for realists like Bazin, they did not agree with its use.

What will become of film studies if all the theories of the past become obsolete? This may be the question on the minds of modern film theorists. Manovich describes the current film situation as “born from animation, cinema pushed animation to its periphery, only in the end to become one particular case of animation.” (Manovich, 2001). Perhaps it is time for all of film theory to be redefined, which would provide an interesting and challenging opportunity for modern film theorists. What we now consider early film history was, at the time, defined in terms of its limitations in representing reality, while now we can see that this was perhaps the most “realistic” time for cinema if you consider its reliance on lens-based recordings of reality (Manovich, 2001). Cinema universally shared this live-action quality which can now be entirely absent from films with the use of CGI. Film theory could be more useful in analyzing modern films if framed in a different manner, perhaps more like theory pertaining to literature and paintings, rather than building theory around its differences from these art forms like Arnheim. These were ideas tried in the past, and while not insignificant, theories need to change with the times. Studies in all of these art forms have now been around long enough to stop legitimizing them as relevant texts for analysis and to move on and evolve the theories to pertain to the modern situation. While how the image is produced should not be absent from theory, the meaning and context of film sequences seems to be an aspect more relevant to analysis. Indexicality could be used to describe what a filmed object represents in reality, rather than literally being a copy of a physical object. This would provide rich basis for analysis.

Anne Friedberg wrote in her article “The End of Cinema: Multimedia and Technological Change” that, “Without the discourse of film history, films would lose their historical identity, would slip into the fog of uncertain temporality.” (Friedberg, 2000) This statement could sum up the cause of concern among film theorists about the changes occurring in the film medium. Academics fear that with all the technological changes surrounding the cinema, both in how films are made and in new modes of viewing, film as a medium may become obsolete. There is a concern that cinema is losing its identity, and the long sought answer to the question “What is cinema?” becomes even farther from their reach. Friedberg also writes “with the speed of such rapid and radical transformations. our technological environments cannot be conclusively theorized.” (Friedberg, 2000). This can be viewed as simply another reason to move on from past theories, let them remain in the study of film history, as it is important to see the progression the medium has taken, but we are moving into a new era that requires new methods of analysis. Old theories may not apply even in the near future of cinema, and if theorists and academics do not want film studies to become obsolete they should not stall the progression of theories, but embrace the changes as they occur. The technological changes are not going to end any time soon, so rather than writing about fears of what is happening, it makes more sense to attempt to adapt concepts like indexicality to the current situation.

Peter Wollen, in his article “The Semiology of the Cinema” defines cinematic imagery in terms of signs and says “A sign is either an icon, and index, or a symbol.” (Wollen, 1972). In his definition of index he describes how a man with a rolling gait would be a probable indication that he is a sailor. This seems to be a more useful implementation of the term indexical, as the term can be used to infer meaning from a representation. Regarding cinema in terms of signs provides a richer opportunity for analysis than limiting the discussion more literally around how the image is a physical “copy” of the real-world. This definition can incorporate CGI and what the image is representing rather than how it is doing so. The theory surrounding indexicality, like much of film theory, must evolve with the times, it can not stay stuck in rigid definitions of the past, but must adapt to changes in the medium. The notion of indexicality is not often used to describe computer generated images, but there is no reason it can’t be used to describe the phenomena. If film theory does not adapt with the times, then the fear theorists hold about “the end of cinema” will occur. it is useless at this stage to try and stop the change, special effects and animation have always been a part of cinema history, and as their influences grow the theories must evolve to incorporate them, it is too late to stop the change, and pointless to hold onto outdated theories.

Whether the image is generated from pixels or light should be of less concern than why it was done. Most films regardless of how they are produced work to hide the traces of their own production. Sets are often constructed and arranged, whether in the real world or on a computer screen, to produce a setting that would otherwise not exist. Live-action films involve editing and techniques that separate the shot from its real world context, the actual time and space aspect of the shot is lost for the purpose of the plot. Films are edited, and shots are reordered out of their original context. For example, a set may have only three walls, which will go unnoticed in the actual film as the camera is placed where the forth wall would be. In this way indexicality of the shot in live-action films seems of less importance than the result, as people don’t accept the set for what it is (three walls in a studio), but rather what it is meant to represent. This is not so very different from other modes of producing false realities, such as the use of CGI. An interesting live-action example of this situation is Field of Dreams (Phil Alden Robinson, 1989). During filming Iowa was experiencing a drought and the grass for the baseball diamond died and turned brown, so the film crew literally painted the grass green. Today the grass could have easily been modified with computer technology (with less harm done to the land), and the result would seemingly be just as indexical, either way the grass on set was not naturally green. No matter which process was used, the set would still represent what we perceive a green baseball diamond to look like, both methods would have a real world referent regardless of how they were achieved.

Computer technology can liberate a filmmaker to produce anything he can envision. The opening “life of a bullet” sequence of Lord of War (Andrew Niccol, 2005) would not be possible with current film apparatus, as the shot follows a bullet through its stages of production and machinery, into boxes as it is shipped to its destination, and into a gun where it is eventually fired. A filmmaker can envision a shot, which can occur in the real world, and can now accomplish it without concern for limitations of camera technology. Should a film involving a volcano eruption delay its release until the filmmakers can capture the real-life footage they need? Should they limit themselves to stock footage? Or should filmmakers limit themselves to films about everyday occurrences so there is no need for computer technology? A CG volcano eruption will still take its referent from the real world, it will attempt to make a sequence of what a real volcano eruption looks like, while keeping the film crew out of danger. Spectators today should be given enough credit to know that computer technology is being used in the films they watch, no one would have assumed there were real dinosaurs on the set of Jurassic Park (Steven Speilberg, 1993), although the film contains what one would expect a dinosaur to look like, and it seems fair to use the technology available to make a “believable” film about anything.

A “copy” can now be produced on a computer screen and this has been occurring more frequently over the last thirty years since the generation of the first Star Wars film. Indexicality, and film theory in general, need to be extended to account for this development. Rather than following the path of many past film theorists, who tended to ignore aspects of film that did not fit with their explanation of film, modern film theorists should begin to rethink the relationship between copies and their referents. Film images are no longer mere “footprints” of the real world, but now require a new definition to account for the change in the technology, which has great artistic potential. The opening “floating feather” sequence of Forrest Gump (Robert Zemeckis, 1994) would not be possible without the use of CGI, and its use does not merit the sequence any less worthy of theorizing, in fact it seems the opposite, a director can achieve virtually any vision he may have, bringing film theory closer to poetry or literature analysis than it was in the past. The meaning behind the shot can be more rich when the shot comes from a vision, free of limitations of technology. There is an even greater potential for meaningful, artistic productions as the technology moves to a more computer based process. There are several critics who have written about meaning behind the floating feather at the beginning and end of the film; it is an artistic sequence that benefitted the film as a whole.

As has been suggested, computer imagery challenges the notion of indexicality pertaining to photographic realism, as the line between what is real and what is not real becomes more blurred. Stephen Prince has suggested a correspondence-based model, in which links are made between fictional realities and our own visual and social “real-world.” As even “unreal” images can be perceptually realistic, this would involve a relationship between the film or image and the spectator, rather than a relationship between the filmed object and its origin. Viewers perceptually correspond the images they see on screen to the world they know (Prince, 1996). This is the type of theory that we can move into the future with, it is more appropriate to current films than some of the past theories and concepts.

The Thirteenth Floor (Josef Rusnack, 1999) which we watched in class, contains three different time frames, the year 1937, late 1990s and 2024. How the filmmakers achieved believable representations of past and future time periods (whether sets were built, or computer graphics were used) is of less importance than the perceptual reality discussed by Stephen Prince, the depictions of past and future can be accepted by the spectator as believable within the plot of the film. The 1937 setting still holds a referent of what 1937 looked like, while the future is a manufactured reality of what the filmmaker thinks it will look like. Of greater importance is to analyze how spectators perceive the film in relation to the world in which they live. It is time for film theory to catch up to its evolving image technologies, and account for the special effects and animation qualities of cinema. Theories that leave these aspects out are simply incomplete. It seems more important and meaningful to closely examine the relationship between the spectator and how they interpret what they see, whether it has a physical referent or is created on a computer.

With an ever changing medium the theory too must adapt. While the idea of indexicality does merit discussion, the move to a digital technology should not be feared and delayed, it can in fact liberate filmmakers to produce something new and exciting that has never been done. Analysis of realism has existed since films birth, the time has come to embrace film in relation to the spectator, to look for deeper meaning, as is the general process for so many other art forms. The attempt to legitimize film as something worth studying can be laid to rest, the program is already offered in many universities, and theorists need to move on to larger, more relevant ideas. Indexicality does not need to become obsolete within discussions of current film, but it needs to either incorporate computer generated images, or we need a new similar concept in order to explain the indexicality of digital imagery and how the spectator perceives these referents.

References

Friedberg, Anne (2000). “The End of Cinema: Multimedia and Technological Change.” Reinventing Film Studies. Eds. Christine Gledhill and Linda Williams. London: Arnold, 438-452.

Furstenau, Marc. Digital Theory: Cinema and New Technology Lecture. March 18, 2008.

Manovich, Lev (2001). “Digital Cinema and the History of a Moving Image.” The Language of New Media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 293-308.

Prince, Stephen (1996). “True Lies: Perceptual Realism, Digital Images, and Film Theory.” Film Quarterly. Vol. 49, No. 3, 27-37.

Wollen, Peter (1972). “The Semiology of the Cinema.” Signs and Meaning in the Cinema. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 116-154.

Analysis of the Use of Sound in The Incredibles Essay

2009-04-29T09:29:00.000-07:00

Film is most frequently perceived as a visual medium, but as William Whittington has stated “sound is half the picture.” Sound has the ability to inscribe meaning into a film. Randy Thom, a sound designer for Disney has stated that, “Sound may be the most powerful tool in the filmmaker’s arsenal in terms of its ability to seduce. That’s because ‘sound,’ as the great sound editor Alan Splet once said, ‘is a heart thing.’ We, the audience, interpret sound with our emotions, not our intellect” (Thom, Machinery Aimed at the Ear). Animation can utilize sound techniques to suggest, heighten, diminish, describe, exaggerate and evoke meaning into a film. This paper will explore sound theory in animation, using Disney as a case study for their innovations of sound in animated films and sequences from the film The Incredibles to demonstrate specific uses of sound.

Disney is credited as being the first to use sound-on-film techniques for the animated short, Steamboat Willie in 1928. Prior to this, films were often accompanied either by sound which was recorded separately, or with live accompaniment. To produce the sound for Steamboat Willie musicians recorded the music as they watched the pre-produced film strip. They “synchronized sonic motifs to visual depictions of Mickey Mouse” and thus produced the first embedded soundtrack (Hanna, 2008). This technique of matching animation synchronously with music was later termed “Mickey Mousing.” Later Disney films, such as The Jungle Book (1967) reversed this process by animating the characters to match the musical accompaniment. Characters mouths were animated to match the musicians who sang the songs. Suzie Hanna wrote, “Whether led by visual or audio content, a symbiotic relationship between animator and composer, as well as animator and performer, was established as soon as the technology allowed it” (Hanna, 2008).

Director Brad Bird has stated that The Incredibles (2004, Brad Bird) is meant to reflect the difference between “the fantastic and the mundane” and it can be argued that this the contrast is most apparent through the use of sound. The film is contrasted with calm, quiet scenes of everyday suburban life, juxtaposed with loud, action scenes of the life of the “fantastic” superheroes (Incredibles DVD).

The Incredibles is an interesting example of sound in animation as it incorporates both competing models of cartoon sound: Abstract Exaggeration and Greater Realism. What Bird described in The Incredibles as the fantastic versus the mundane. The film can be separated into two different aspects of life; average life at home, school and work; and the exciting life of superheroes and the characters alter-egos. Sequences such as a family dinner or the father at work tend to use the greater realism model of sound; the sound effects in these sequences resemble sounds that could realistically be audible in these situations. Following the model of early Disney feature length animations. Many of these scenes do not contain non-diegetic music, another technique which adds to their realistic quality.

The superhero sequences on the other hand require substantially more sound effects, frequently using the abstract exaggeration model. Due to the characters superpowers, hypothetical sounds are needed to convey aspects that could otherwise not be represented, such as the sound of Elastagirl as she stretches. These scenes also contain music for a more dramatic effect, unlike the scenes at home and the father’s office. This is likely a conscious effort on the part of the sound designers, to keep some scenes quiet and realistic to reflect the normal (boring) life of the characters, and contrast this with the fantastic, overwhelming lifestyle of the characters as superheroes.

It is perhaps essential to differentiate between the use of sound in live-action films and animation for the purpose of this paper. Synchronized sound in live action film has an indexical connection; since it is impossible for the relationship of sound and image in animation to be indexical, it is represented iconically (Wright, 2007). This distinction is becoming blurred as animation and live-action techniques are used in combination more frequently. Lev Manovich writes that CGI technologies are redefining the very nature of cinema. Cinema was born from animation, hand drawn images were animated manually prior to the invention of film. The two trends diverged however as theorists began defining and analyzing film as a “lens based recording of reality.” Cinema as defined by Manovich became an art of the index; an attempt to make art out of a footprint. Animation, on the other hand, “Foregrounds its artificial nature, openly admitting that its images are mere representations” (Manovich, 2002).

CGI has developed insofar as believable representations of reality, or hyper-real images can be manufactured using pixels, rather than operating as a copy of an original image. Manovich writes, “Consequently, cinema can no longer be clearly distinguished from animation. It is no longer an indexical media technology but, rather, a subgenre of painting” (Manovich, 2002). While not a Disney film, Beowulf (2007) is a modern example of hyper-real digital imagery in cinema. The characters were created using CGI technology, while resembling the actors voicing each character. As the distinctions between animation and film blur, and their definitions shift, sound theory will soon have to adapt to these changes as well.

Sound in The Incredibles employs both competing models of animated sound; leaning towards that of greater realism common of Disney films since Snow White; while also employing elements of abstract exaggeration. The mundane “normal” life of the characters as well as a majority of settings within the film, implement a realistic implementation of sound. Due to the nature of the film and the superheroes’ powers, methods of abstract exaggeration have been incorporated, such as the sound of Dash’s super speed and Helen’s stretchiness.

“Voices, Music, and Sound Effects [in the greater realism model] are used in a more conservative manner, reflecting live action cinema and the continuity system. While narratives retained elements of fantasy, the image and sound track respects the codes of reality” (Wright, 2007). In 3-D animated films such as those produced by Pixar, sound breathes life into lifeless images. Voices add tone, texture, and personality. Music highlights drama, enhances pace, and sets tone. Sound effects add mass and weight to drawings and computer generated images (CGI). Michel Chion describes this technique as rendering sound… Although animated images are modeled in three dimensions with shadow and light, they remain relatively flat creations…Sound needs to convey if something is hollow or heavy in an animated context. (Chion, 1994). In The Incredibles music and voice intonation are the methods employed to depict the appropriate emotion, while sound effects “give life” to the images on the screen. This again relates to sounds of Helen’s stretchiness and Dash’s super speed, as they are represented through sound. These accompanying sound effects don’t just support the action but they add to its overall effect as well.

Disney’s first feature length film Snow White and Seven Dwarfs (1937) attempted to realistically depict human characters (also attempted in The Incredibles, Disney’s first all human 3D animation). In order to capture a sense of realism they had a dancer pose in the studio so they could capture her fluid movements realistically for Snow White’s character. Disney also wanted to incorporate realistic sound. He had a particular voice in mind and auditioned several singers to find a “mellifluous, sweet and youthful voice” that would suit the character he envisioned. Another key element was music. Disney wanted to use music in a new way within a narrative film. He wanted to “weave it into the story so somebody doesn’t just burst into song” (Jackson, 1993).

Randy Thom provides a useful and lengthy list of the ways in which sound can be utilized within film in his article, “Designing a Movie for Sound.” He states, “Music, dialogue, and sound effects can each do any of the following jobs, and many more: suggest a mood; evoke a feeling; set a pace; indicate a geographical locale; indicate a historical period; clarify the plot; define a character; connect otherwise unconnected ideas, characters, places, images, or moments; heighten realism or diminish it; heighten ambiguity or diminish it; draw attention to a detail, or away from it; indicate changes in time; smooth otherwise abrupt changes between shots or scenes; emphasize a transition for dramatic effect; describe an acoustic space; startle or soothe; exaggerate action or mediate it” (Thom, Designing).

Thom employed many, if not all, of these methods within The Incredibles. He used sound techniques to allow the audience to know what characters were feeling at various points within the film; and to separate what Brad Bird called the fantastic from the mundane. This first idea is perhaps the most important distinction, as all members of the superhero family go through various emotional changes throughout the course of the film, and these emotional changes may not be as readily apparent, or possible to portray without the implementation of sound. Mary Ann Doane has explained, “Sound and image are used as guarantors of two radically different modes of knowing (emotion and intellection),” and “sound and image, ‘married’ together, propose a drama of the individual, of psychological realism” (Doane, 1985). We can get a better understanding of the characters as both sound and image can reflect different character traits.

Sound can provide a different meaning than the image, but most commonly within Disney animations, the sound is working to reinforce and heighten the meaning that is being presented within the image. The scenery, lighting, color scheme, facial expressions and sound of these animated films all have to be created, and all work together simultaneously to invoke various meanings. Doane’s quotation here is not referring to animation, as she says the image can be taken as a representation of reality, but it is important to understand that the sound can provide meaning that may not be apparent in the image itself. Michel Chion described the relationship between sound and image by suggesting, “The image is the projected and the sound is the projector, in that sense the latter projects meanings and values onto the image” (Chion, 1994).

Disney Studio was responsible for many innovations to animation. Such as the first feature length animation (Snow White), the first sound-on-film animation, as well as the first Technicolor animation. Disney is also notable for its experimental sound techniques. Fantasia, although not successful commercially, was an attempt to make a feature length film animated to music. Rather than following a narrative, the film acts more as an animated concert. Disney also produced the animated short series Silly Symphony which had animated images and music operating in synchronization. Walt Disney saw the primary technique of animation as “bringing images to life,” he demanded a sense of ‘naturalness’ in his animations. He saw animation as needing to convey an “illusion of reality” and music as already having a life of its own (Brophy, 1991). The challenge lied in attempting to bring these two aspects together; the artificial nature of the illustrated image, and the organic nature of sound. Ernest Walter has said, “Music is used to create an atmosphere which would other wise be impossible...Often, it is an augmented effect blending with dialogue so that one is almost unaware of its musical presence, yet adding so much to the value of the scene” (Thom, Designing).

Both music and voice intonation can represent various emotions of characters within animation. Brad Bird, when discussing The Incredibles said, “The thing that amazes me about music is that in a certain way it’s not specific, but emotionally it’s completely specific” (Incredibles DVD). Randy Thom when describing music in animation said, “A well-orchestrated and recorded piece of musical score has minimal value if it hasn’t been integrated into the film as a whole…Sound, musical and otherwise, has value when it is part of a continuum, when it changes over time, has dynamics, and resonates with other sound and with other sensory experiences” (Thom, Designing a Movie for Sound).

A scene which invokes a strong sense of “feeling” in The Incredibles is when Elastagirl and Mr. Incredible are first shown interacting on a rooftop near the start of the film. This sequence employs both music and voice intonation to reach the desired effect. As Walter Murch has described, “Music [unlike speech] is sound experienced directly, without any code intervening between you and it. Naked. Whatever meaning there is in a piece of music is ‘embodied’ in the sound itself. This is why music is sometimes called the Universal Language.” (Murch, Dense Clarity - Clear Density). He goes on to explain that there are musical elements that can work their way into almost all speech; you can tell by the tone of someone’s voice; how they say something; what they are feeling; whether they be happy or angry. In this scene the audience can instantly recognizable that the two characters are attracted to one another due to their tone of voice and other sound implementstions. Elastigirl speaks in a slow seducing tone, and the non-diegetic music accompanying the scene is a romantic jazz number. To further the effect, Mr. Incredible whistles his interest as Elastigirl departs, and there are “whimsical” sound effects playing in the background, connoting the idea of love. The image adds to the effect by showing the two characters close together, under golden lighting as the sun sets.

Mary Ann Doane writes, “The ‘value’ alluded to remains unexplained…the concept is inaccessible to language, to analysis, or to intellect understanding. Sound is a bearer of a meaning which is communicable and valid but unanalyzable” (Doane, 1985). In this particular scene, the sound is deceiving the audience because it seems to suggest the two characters are casually flirting, especially in terms of the dialogue, as Elastigirl coyly tells Mr. Incredible she is busy later that night and can’t go on a date with him; and we soon discover they are fiancés and their wedding occurs that very evening. This is an example of sound adding meaning to an image that may not be possible in silence. Randy Thom described this effect in “Designing a Movie for Sound,” “We know that we want to sometimes use the camera to withhold information, to tease, or to put it more bluntly: to seduce. The most compelling method of seduction is inevitably going to involve sound as well” (Thom, Machinery).

It would be inadequate to discuss sound in The Incredibles without referring to the sequence known as “The 100 Mile Dash,” in which the character Dash first realizes how fast he is capable of traveling (one of the emotional changes discussed earlier). This realization comes about because of the danger he is faced with in the form of a terrifying and high-speed space ship. Randy Thom discussed how this effect was achieved in an article in the “San Francisco Chronicle,” he says, “We have enormous latitude in an animated film to create this sonic world from zero. And we have a whole palette of sounds we can use to create a mood. We can make it seem sinister or light.” Referring to the sound of the velocipods he says, “This is a sinister sound -- something that the character Dash hears. He's being chased by these flying saucer-like things called velocipods. When I began to do the sound for this, I thought about what things in the world are fast, and sound fast. There are jets, rockets, race cars. And I thought, race cars might work -- they sound high tech, and they make a revving sound when they prepare to go fast; you can't do that with a jet engine. I started listening to all the samples we have in our library of race car sounds and chose one. Then the trick is to fiddle with it, so that when the audience is sitting in the theater they’re not thinking, where’s the race car? I’m hearing a race car!” (Ganahal, 2005). In The Making Of portion of the DVD he goes on to say that to make these vehicles sound dangerous he added the sound of knives rubbing against each other and than slightly distorted them. This sound explains to the audience how dangerous and fast the velocipods are. The music that accompanies this scene is a kind of frantic, fast paced xylophone as Dash runs away, which gets slower, deeper and more terrifying, through the use of trombones and other instruments when the velocipods get close to him. Dash’s speed is also accentuated by the accompaniment of quick, light sounding footsteps. The music in this sequence has the effect of speed, urgency, danger, and triumph as the plot progresses.

Randy Thom has discussed a similar idea to this in reference to sound in action and sci-fi films, He wrote. “You begin by trying to forget for a while what the Nazi tank in an Indiana Jones film would “really” sound like, and start thinking about what it would FEEL LIKE in a nightmare. The treads would be like spinning samurai blades. The engine would be like the growl of an angry beast. You then go out and find sounds that have those qualities, or alter sounds to make them have those qualities. It makes no difference whether the sounds you collect actually have anything to do with tanks, samurai blades, or growling animals. The essential emotional quality of the sounds is virtually ALL that matters” (Thom, Designing). This idea is especially important in relation to The Incredibles because it is an animated film, it does not have to be represented as reality insofar as live action films do. Sound designers are left with more potential to influence the “feeling” and emotional qualities of sound as they are freed from attempting synchronized indexicality.

In “Designing a Film for Sound” Thom wrote about the use of sound to give a sense of a particular location. He says it is possible to “produce a set of sounds which range from banal to exciting to frightening to weird to comforting to ugly to beautiful. The place can therefore become a character, and have its own voice, with a range of ‘emotions’ and ‘moods’” (Thom, Designing). Within The Incredibles the costume designer known as “E” has a very large home, and when the characters speak in this location you can get a sense of its size through an echoing caverness quality to the characters voices and footsteps.

The Incredibles employs various techniques through sound to suggest, define, heighten, diminish, describe, exaggerate and evoke meaning onto the images within the film. As an animated film, sound becomes essential to provide meaning and give life to the otherwise lifeless image. Sound in The Incredibles is used to expose the emotions of the characters and assists in portraying the inner changes each character experiences the film. The sound techniques help show the strengthening of the parent’s relationship, the fathers growing happiness as he returns to the life of superhero, and the children’s emotional changes as they became more conscious of their powers, and more aware of themselves as individuals.

Various sounds help to differentiate the contesting aspects of The Incredibles, the opposition between the fantastic and the mundane. Sound can heighten the dramatic effect or diminish it when appropriate for the plot. In addition, sound can give the various locations within the film their own mood and emotional qualities. As many theorists have explained, sound makes its appeal on the senses of the spectator while the image aims more at the intellect. It is sound which adds real meaning to the film. As Randy Thom stated in The Making Of portion of The Incredibles DVD, “People sometimes say that film is a visual medium, but in fact it really doesn’t function without sound.”

Bibliography

Brophy, Philip. “The Animation of Sound.” Illusions of Life. Ed. Alan Cholodenko. Sydney: Power Publications. 7-112.

Chion, Michel. “Sound Film- Worthy of the Name.” Audio Vision: Sound on Screen. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. 141-156.

Doane, Mary Ann. “Ideology and the Practice of Sound Editing and Mixing.” Film Sound: Theory and Practice. Eds. Elisabeth Weis and John Belton. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985. 54-62.

Ganahl, Jane. “With an ear for storytelling, Randy Thom makes the audience believe what they hear.” San Francisco Chronicle. 22 Feb. 2005: E-1. 30 Nov. 2008.http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cg?file=/c/a/2005/02/22/DDGSHBDIAV1.DTL

Hanna, Suzie. “Composers and animators – the creation of interpretative and collaborative vocabularies.” Journal of Media Practice. 2008. Vol. 9: 1.

Jackson, Kathy Merlock. “Walt Disney: A Bio-Bibliography.” Westport: Grenwood Press, 1993.

Manovich, Lev. “Digital Cinema and the History of a Moving Image.” The Language of New Media. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2002. 293-308.

Murch, Walter. “Dense Clarity-Clear Density.” 30 Nov. 2008. http://www.ps1.org/cut/volume/murch.html

Thom, Randy. “Designing a Movie for Sound.” FilmSound.org: Learning Space dedicated to the Art and Analyses of Film Sound Design. 30 Nov. 2008. http://www.filmsound.org/articles/designing_for_sound.htm

Thom, Randy. “The Machinery Aimed At the Ear.” FilmSound.org: Learning Space dedicated to the Art and Analyses of Film Sound Design. 27 Nov. 2008.http://www.filmsound.org/randythom/machinery.htm

Wright, Benjamin. “Animation.” FILM 3901 (B). Carleton University. 5 Nov. 2007.

Fan Culture and Blade Runner Essay

2009-04-29T09:20:00.000-07:00

With the advent of new media technologies audiences’ sense of authorship and authenticity are changing. The growing trend of fan edits and fan fiction on the Internet can be viewed as a postmodern practice, as audience involvement in meaning creation constitutes one element of the postmodern. This paper will examine the film Blade Runner (Ridley Scott, 1982) in the context of postmodernism and fan culture. It will outline how Blade Runner and fan cultures are postmodern relating to audiences as active participants in meaning creation and the production of alternative meanings. It will examine various audience interpretations and creations diverging from the original text, thus challenging the “authentic” film and intended reception.

Henry Jenkins discusses fan cultures as “participatory cultures” and says it is “anything but fringe or underground today. Fan fiction can be accessed in astonishing quantities and diversities by anyone who knows how to Google” (Jenkins, 2006). This culture includes such practices as fan edits, fan fiction, blogging and internet forums. Any practice that involves negotiating or creating meanings surrounding cultural products. This paper will return to the concept of fan culture in relation to the film Blade Runner after an introduction to postmodernism and how Blade Runner can be viewed as a postmodern film.

Any discussion of postmodernism is complicated due to diverging definitions by theorists, as well as the difficulty in separating the postmodern from the modern. It is further complicated in the context of film, because cinema itself was outlined by Walter Benjamin to be a modern technology. Sturken and Cartwright point out that, “The distinctions between modern art styles and postmodern styles reveal overlapping strategies and interests” (Sturken and Cartwright, 2009). However, this paper will attempt to identify some elements of postmodernism which can be applied to the film Blade Runner and fan cultures. To explain postmodernism one must first consider the modern, as “post” suggests it precedes something. This paper will primarily implement the definitions of modern and postmodern as outlined by Sturken and Cartwright in Practices of Looking. They write that the period of modernity began around the nineteenth century and continues to present day, thus making the theory of postmodernism, which became prominent in the 1970s, problematic as the two are now occurring simultaneously. A defining aspect of modernism is a trust in metanarratives, which are frameworks that aim to comprehensively explain all aspects of society and the world (Sturken and Cartwright, 2009). One example is the belief that science is a means to achieve social progress and move closer to achieving “the truth,” as well as faith in notions of religion, law, education, capitalism and politics (Sturken and Cartwright, 2009).

Sturken and Cartwright note, “The postmodern is characterized by the questioning of the supposed universality of structural knowledge, as well as a skepticism about the modern belief in the universality of progress” (Sturken and Cartwright, 2009). While Pooke and Newall in Art History describe the postmodern as often having a particular stance in relation to the modern. They write, “If we understand one form of modernism as being concerned with what aesthetic practice should be, then the postmodern can be interpreted as a more or less conscious reaction to this” (Pooke and Newall, 2007, 169). In terms of fan culture, the appropriation of existing texts for individual purposes, such as fan edits and fan fiction, give existing texts new meaning. These practices operate as postmodern texts because they challenge the notion of singular truths and master narratives. They enable audiences to find and create their own truths within popular narratives. The postmodern is a response to conditions of modernism and the late stages of capitalism, it emphasizes one’s own involvement in low or popular culture, and rejects notions that there is one truth to encourage finding truth on an individual basis, which is demonstrated within fan culture practices. These aspects demonstrate the postmodern skepticism towards metanarratives and linear truths, as well as its oppositional stance towards modernism (Sturken and Cartwright, 2007). The postmodern is not just a change in art styles, but a change in ideologies. Sturken and Cartwright make clear that we do not live in a postmodern world, but a world where the modern and postmodern are in constant tension. This tension is also observable in Blade Runner, as Verun Begley points out in Blade Runner and the Postmodern: A Reconsideration, the film can be read in terms of modernity or postmodernity (Begley, 2004).

Linda Hutcheon describes postmodernism as emerging out of uniformity and mass culture, as well as to interrogate the notion of consensus. She explains that the narratives and systems in our society that allowed us to think we could “unproblematically define public agreement, have now been questioned by the acknowledgement of differences- through theory and artistic practice” (Hutcheon, 1987). Hutcheon concludes that postmodern art questions all that is viewed as natural, eternal or universal and therefore viewed as unchangeable. This is demonstrated through practices of fan culture, as cultural productions do not meet all fans needs and beliefs and therefore consensus, so fans appropriate these texts and interpret them in new and different ways. Multiple versions of a text inevitably result in multiple meanings.

Frederick Jameson identifies pastiche as the key element of postmodern style. Pastiche is the technique of borrowing, quoting or plagiarizing previous styles with no reference to their historical context. In the case of film, this can include genre mixing, which is apparent in Blade Runner as the film mixes film noir with science fiction. Sturken and Cartwright add that, “One of the key strategies of pastiche is a questioning of the original” (Sturken and Cartwright, 2009). This questioning of the original is prevalent in fan culture practices which can be viewed as a form of pastiche, a notion that will be further explored within this paper.

Blade Runner is one of the films most frequently interpreted as postmodern, as well as being the first film to release a Director’s Cut. In addition, the film now has four versions released by the studio, which makes this film an interesting example for exploration relating to postmodernism and multiple meanings. The film takes place in 2019, a blade runner named Deckard is called out of retirement to track down and kill four escaped replicants. Replicants are man-made robots indistinguishable from humans by their appearance, used as slave labour on “Off-world” communities. The world is in a state of destruction, so people have begun to move to these “Off-world” locations, which are simulated representations of earth. Both the replicants and the Off-world locations (although never depicted in the film) can be viewed as simulacra, or empty copies, which is a feature Sturken and Cartwright outline as postmodern.

Visual clues throughout the film suggest the blade runner may be a replicant himself, which is presented in differing degrees depending on which version of the film you watch. In the Director’s Cut, this is depicted visually as the main character has a dream about a unicorn and another blade runner who leaves origami at the locations of replicants deaths, leaves a unicorn on the character’s front step. The film (as well as the director in interviews) does not specify whether the blade runner is a replicant, but leaves it up the viewer to interpret and decide for themselves (Begley, 2004). Using Thelma and Louise as an example, Jenkins describes that gaps, irresolutions, excesses, contradictions, unmotivated actions, and moral ambiguities all demand viewer participation. They require the viewer to make judgements or speculations. (Jenkins, 2000). So the ambiguity in Blade Runner as to whether or not Deckard is a replicant further situates this as a postmodern film, as this aspect requires audience speculation. It is not spelt out for the viewer, but left up to them to decide. It is not surprising that this ambiguity is taken up as the primary theme and given greater significance in the two fan edits that will be discussed in this paper. The ambiguities surrounding this issue give the fan editors an area to explore with the available material from the film.

Varun Begley in his article on postmodernism in Blade Runner outlines the problems of postmodern theory, as the film could be read as either modern or postmodern, demonstrating the ambiguity of the terms. If modernism is viewed as having established conventions, the postmodern then is meant to break these conventions. Blade Runner, however, follows a typically modern style of editing and linear narrative, so the postmodern aspects are demonstrated more through the plot of the film, certain visuals and ambiguities rather than breaking any established conventions. Begley also discusses the problem of defining postmodern aesthetics, since it is the nature of postmodernism to reject established conventions.

Begley also notes the film has several versions, while the studio insisted on a happy ending, the director’s cut omits this ending. Begley describes the Director’s Cut as a postmodern reading of the original studio release by rejecting the convention of the Hollywood “happy ending” for an ending that was more ambiguous and open to interpretation (Begley, 2004). The trend in Hollywood to rerelease existing films as “Director’s Cuts” can be seen as representing the postmodern notion of multiplicity of meanings as this results in more than one version of the same film for the viewer to choose from. Although Begley only touches on the two versions, the film actually has several more releases. There is the Studio Release; The Director’s Cut, which was rushed and Ridley Scott had very little input in creating; The International version , which had additional scenes of violence; and more recently The Final Cut, released in 2007, in which Scott had much more influence (Hunt, 2007).

Begley cites a few aesthetics within the film that could be considered postmodern. The film implements pastiche through its use of characters borrowed from a variety of different genres and time frames, all living together in a futuristic dystopian setting; they range from a character resembling a 1940s Hollywood star to a mad scientist, which also demonstrates the genre mixing of science fiction with film noir. The setting of Blade Runner is a postindustrial society, which can be viewed as an interpretation of what comes after modernism. The world appears to be in a state of destruction, which further positions this film as postmodern as it is rejecting the notion that science will lead to social progress. Begley describes the setting as a city of pastiche. It is fragmented, in a state of destruction and rebuilt out of the remnants of times past. It recycles societies architectural signifiers and turns them into something new, void of historical specificity (Begley, 2004).

Perhaps the most common element in quintessential “postmodern” films, are these apocalyptic settings. Sturken and Cartwright write that the Holocaust and nuclear bombing of Japan showed how scientific ideas could be turned against humankind, which reflects the postmodern skepticism toward scientific progress. This aspect of postmodernism is commonly demonstrated within films known as cyberpunk, with apocalyptic representations of the world to demonstrate where modern beliefs about the value of science in achieving progress may take us (Sturken and Cartwright, 2007). Film critic Lawrence Person defines cyberpunk as representing “dystopic futures where daily life was impacted by rapid technological change, a ubiquitous data-sphere of computerized information, and invasive modification of the human body” (Person, 1998). Keith Booker writes, “The loss of faith in historical metanarratives during the postmodern era has been accompanied by a weakening of the utopian imagination, and in particular by a loss of faith in the possibility that utopian dreams might actually be realized” (Booker, 2007). This aspect of cyberpunk films is prevalent in Blade Runner.

In 1966 Roland Barthes first announced the death of the author. Pooke and Newall explain, “Barthes believed that the creator of the text (or work of art) should not have the monopoly over its interpretation and that other readings were equally tenable” (Pooke and Newall, 2007, 169). Jenkins notes in Reception Theory and Audience Research that this declaration of the death of the author came prematurely, as “texts play central roles in shaping their reception, even if they do not totally control their meanings” (Jenkins, 2000). However, fan cultures do challenge the author’s intention. In modern art the artists intention was key, while in postmodern art the audience is given a greater role in the interpretation of meaning. Jenkins discusses in relation to textual poaching that fan cultures challenge “authorial authority” (Jenkins, 1992) so fans in this practice while not replacing the author often broaden the scope and offer new interpretations to their work. In the case of film, this practice can be seen as challenging the director as auteur. It raises the question, if the directors intention doesn’t matter can he be viewed as an auteur? However, the director’s work still stands on its own as a cultural product, fan cultures do not replace that work, but supplement it with additional versions and interpretations.

Blade Runner is based on the science fiction novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Philip K. Dick, the fact the film is based on a novel, that someone else wrote the screenplay, and that there are now four versions of the film available (excluding the fan edits), raise questions about the director Ridley Scott as the auteur of the film. This is further problematized by the extended scope of the film through fan edits, fan fiction and other fan internet activities (Blade Runner- The Final Cut, 2009). Being based off a novel, the film in some respects supports the postmodern notion that “everything has been done before” (Sturken and Cartwright, 2009). The fan edits take this to a whole new level by turning a cultural product into a new text.

The Blade Runner- The Final Cut, 5-disc collectors edition contains 48 minutes of deleted and alternate footage. The discussion boards on fanedited.com call it “a fan editors dream.” Fanedited.com contains two fan edited versions of the film, Blade Runner- 2008 Extended Edition and Blade Runner- Electric Unicorn Cut. Both of these edits are similar in that they insert a number of deleted scenes from “The Final Cut” that suit their individual interests. The title “Electric Unicorn Cut” plays off the title of the book from which the movie was made. The “2008 Extended Edition” begins with a quote by Rachel saying, “You know what I think? That we were made for each other.” In the films description the creator writes he inserted this to make clear that Deckard is a replicant from the films beginning. Near the films end he also inserted a line by Gaff, “Are you sure you are a man? It’s hard to tell who’s who around here.” Both of the fan edits attempted to make this aspect of the film less ambiguous, inserting any additional material which suggested Deckard was a replicant. Interestingly, neither drastically change the story outside of this aspect, no characters or lengthy scenes were cut, but rather each version made the film longer by adding various material from the 5-disc set. The fan edited versions represent individual preferences over relatively small details in the overall reception of the film. Both editors expressed that they were fans of the film, so more drastic changes may take place in circumstances where an individual did not enjoy the original film (fanedited.com).

On YouTube there is a trend to make music videos out of clips from favorite films, television shows, or actors. For Blade Runner there is one made to the song “Paranoid Android” by Radiohead. Again what was interesting (like the fan edits) this video very closely demonstrated the plot of the film, following the timeline and plot of the film but cutting it down to seven minutes. It has a similar narrative continuity as the film, rather than appearing as a series of random clips. Jenkins writes of fan created music videos in Textual Poachers, “If MTV is a postmodern art of pastiche that isolates images from their original context(s) and unmoors them from their previous associations, fan video is an art of quotation that anchors its images to a referent, drawn from the fans’ meta-textual understanding of the series characters and their universe” (Jenkins, 1992). Jenkins in this segment is discussing television programs, but the same can be applied to films to a certain extent. These videos raise a great deal of associations for fans, as they remember the episodes and segments the clips were taken from. Jenkins writes that it “takes the fan back to the original series and invite them to reconsider its narrative development” (Jenkins, 1992). In the case of this particular YouTube video the fan has selected a number of scenes they felt gave an overall picture of the film. What they chose to include and omit has the potential to emphasize specific elements of the film and diminish others.

Sturken and Cartwright write that postmodern texts speak to subjects that are in the know about codes and conventions and who are media and image savvy. (Sturken and Cartwright, 2009). This notion can be applied to fan fiction and fan music videos (as discussed by Jenkins) as these stories and videos will appeal to individuals who are knowledgeable about the text from which the images or characters are borrowed. Rather than being empty copies, as many postmodern works are described, the clips in these videos raise many meanings in quick succession as they are edited to music, they raise all the meanings from the film or particular television show they are borrowed from. Although removing these elements from their original contexts, these images take on new meanings (Jenkins, 1992).

Henry Jenkins writes in Textual Poachers that fan cultures muddle boundaries, “treating popular texts as if they merited the same degree of attention and appreciation as canonical texts” and continues, “Fans speak of artists where others can see only commercial hacks, of transcendent meanings where others find only banalities, of quality and innovation where others see only formula and convention” (Jenkins, 1992). This demonstrates a postmodern tendency outlined by Sturken and Cartwright, that the postmodern blurs the boundaries between high and low culture (Sturken and Cartwright, 2009). As fans gain appreciation for the favorite texts they elevate them to the status of high art.

Jenkins continues to write that fans do not interpret texts in the same way as academics. They are “unimpressed” by institutional authority or expertise and assert their right to form their own interpretations and claim mass culture for their own use by reworking them to form their own cultural canons (Jenkins, 1992). This form of textual poaching can be viewed as pastiche. As, similar to the definition outlined by Sturken and Cartwright, fans quote, plagiarize and borrow from existing works. In addition, fans challenge media producers attempts to constrain the creation and circulation of meanings. This relates to the postmodern rejection of metanarratives and singular truths. As fans construct their own meanings out of cultural productions, multiplicity of meanings develops and no film can demonstrate a singular meaning to all spectators.

Blade Runner as a film and the fan productions surrounding it to a greater extent, can be viewed as postmodern. As the practices of fan cultures continue to rise and become more accessible to large audience by aid of the Internet, academic writing on the issue is gaining in prominence. While the modern and postmodern continue to exist in tension, productions by fans may be the most quintessentially postmodern artistic practice to date. It produces not only multiple meanings in one text, but multiple versions of texts as interpreted and preferred by individuals. No longer are we confined to one text to accept or reject, but we can search out a version that best meet our individual interests or make our own and contribute to the fan culture.

References

Begley, Varun. “Blade Runner and the Postmodern: A Reconsideration.” Literature Film Quarterly. 32:3, 2004: p186-192.

Blade Runner- The Final Cut. Retrieved April 2, 2009. http://bladerunnerthemovie.warnerbros.com/

Booker, Keith. Postmodern Hollywood: what’s new in film and why it makes us feel so strange. Westport: Praeger, 2007.

FanEdit: Home of the Fan Edits. Retrieved April 2, 2009. http://www.fanedited.com/

Hunt, Bill. “Blade Runner: The Final Cut- All Versions.” The Digital Bits. December 12, 2007. Retrieved April 3, 2009.

http://www.thedigitalbits.com/reviewshd/bladerunnerfinalallver01.html

Hutcheon, Linda. “Beginning to Theorize Postmodernism.” Textual Practice. 1:1, 1987: p10-44.

Jenkins, Henry. Fans, bloggers and gamers: Exploring participatory culture. New York: NYU Press, 2006.

Jenkins, Henry. Textual Poachers; Television Fans and Participatory Culture. New York: Routledge, 1992.

Jenkins, Henry. “Reception Theory and Audience Research: The Mystery of the Vampire’s Kiss.” Reinventing Film Studies. eds. Christine Gledhill and Linda Williams. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000: p165-182.

Person, Lawrence. “Notes toward a postcyberpunk manifesto.” Nova Express. 16, 1998.

Pooke, Grant and Diana Newall. Art History: The Basics. New York: Routledge, 2007.

Sturken, Marita and Lisa Cartwright. Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

My Top Anime

2009-04-13T15:09:00.000-07:00

#1 Elfen Lied

This is a very gory anime with some sexual/nude content, and is definitely worth watching. It has a great story and an awesome main character. It’s only 13 episodes long, and follows the story of Lucy, a Diclonius with cat-like horns who has telekinetic powers.

#2 Wolf’s Rain

I am highly obsessed with wolves, so that may have influenced my love for this anime. The story follows four wolves in the future. Legend states that when the end of the world comes Paradise will appear and only wolves will be able to enter it, humans believe wolves are already extinct, but they have survived through their ability to take on human form. Cheza, is a girl scientifically created from a lunar flower, she has the power to lead the wolves to Paradise. Has a pretty cool bad guy too, Darcia.

#3 Zombie Loan

I should warn I rarely see Zombie Loan mentioned on any top anime lists, but I think it has a great story. Michiru Kita is a girl who has Shinigami Eyes, which is the power to see how close someone is to their death based on the darkness of a ring around their neck. She meets Chika and Shito who work for Zombie Loan, a company who kills zombies. I don’t want to give away any more information for fear of ruining the story, if you decide to watch it. Just trust, it’s worth watching, especially if you love horror like me.

#4 Neon Genesis Evangelion

I’m not even going to attempt to summarize the story for this one. I like it because the story is asking to be analyzed. Being a film student I like looking for deeper meaning within plots, and this anime is amazing for that. By the end you may have no idea what anything “means” it sort of leaves you hanging, but there are a couple films that come after to help explain everything to you. I usually prefer really dark anime, so this one is a bit different than the others on the list. If you don’t care about anything else I’ve said, there are a lot of fight scenes with giant robots, if you like that sort of thing.

#5 Hellsing (OVA’s)

Anyone who watches anime, I’m sure knows of the Hellsing series. Hellsing is an organization that kills vampires. The anime series has a good story, but in my opinion the animation was terrible (very little movement, a lot of still frame images). The OVA series follows basically the same story, but it looks a hundred times better. As far as I know there are currently five movies, and I highly recommend watching them. This should probably be higher than number five on the list, as I absolutely love vampires, but for now here it stays.

#6 Vampire Knight

Cross Academy is a school with a day class of humans and a night class of vampires. It is basically a social experiment to determine if humans and vampires can coexist. I’ll be honest that I haven’t made it through this entire series. I got a bit bored of it by the 7th episode (this is the longest running series on this list). I haven’t quite put my finger on what I didn’t like about it, I think the story was just moving along too slow for me. But I love the idea of it, and some great story elements were set up in the episodes I’ve seen. I recommend starting the series and perhaps you’ll want to stick with it and see what happens.